An introduction to scientific research pdf

An element of randomness is usually introduced into this kind of sampling by using random numbers to pick up the unit with which to start. This procedure is useful when sampling frame is available in the form of a list.

In such a design the selection process starts by picking some random point in the list and then every nth element is selected until the desired number is secured. In this technique, the population is stratified into a number of non- overlapping subpopulations or strata and sample items are selected from each stratum. If the items selected from each stratum is based on simple random sampling the entire procedure, first stratification and then simple random sampling, is known as stratified random sampling.

This is called quota sampling. The size of the quota for each stratum is generally proportionate to the size of that stratum in the population. Quota sampling is thus an important form of non-probability sampling. Quota samples generally happen to be judgement samples rather than random samples.

Suppose some departmental store wishes to sample its credit card holders. It has issued its cards to 15, customers. The sample size is to be kept say For cluster sampling this list of 15, card holders could be formed into clusters of card holders each. Three clusters might then be selected for the sample randomly. The sample size must often be larger than the simple random sample to ensure the same level of accuracy because is cluster sampling procedural potential for order bias and other sources of error is usually accentuated.

The clustering approach can, however, make the sampling procedure relatively easier and increase the efficiency of field work, specially in the case of personal interviews. Area sampling is quite close to cluster sampling and is often talked about when the total geographical area of interest happens to be big one. Under area sampling we first divide the total area into a number of smaller non-overlapping areas, generally called geographical clusters, then a number of these smaller areas are randomly selected, and all units in these small areas are included in the sample.

Area sampling is specially helpful where we do not have the list of the population concerned. It also makes the field interviewing more efficient since interviewer can do many interviews at each location. This technique is meant for big inquiries extending to a considerably large geographical area like an entire country. Under multi-stage sampling the first stage may be to select large primary sampling units such as states, then districts, then towns and finally certain families within towns.

If the technique of random-sampling is applied at all stages, the sampling procedure is described as multi-stage random sampling. This design is usually adopted under acceptance sampling plan in the context of statistical quality control. In practice, several of the methods of sampling described above may well be used in the same study in which case it can be called mixed sampling. But purposive sampling is considered desirable when the universe happens to be small and a known characteristic of it is to be studied intensively.

Also, there are conditions under which sample designs other than random sampling may be considered better for reasons like convenience and low costs. The sample design to be used must be decided by the researcher taking into consideration the nature of the inquiry and other related factors. Collecting the data: In dealing with any real life problem it is often found that data at hand are inadequate, and hence, it becomes necessary to collect data that are appropriate.

There are several ways of collecting the appropriate data which differ considerably in context of money costs, time and other resources at the disposal of the researcher. Primary data can be collected either through experiment or through survey. If the researcher conducts an experiment, he observes some quantitative measurements, or the data, with the help of which he examines the truth contained in his hypothesis.

The information obtained relates to what is currently happening and is not complicated by either the past behaviour or future intentions or attitudes of respondents.

This method is no doubt an expensive method and the information provided by this method is also very limited. As such this method is not suitable in inquiries where large samples are concerned. This method of collecting data is usually carried out in a structured way where output depends upon the ability of the interviewer to a large extent.

This is not a very widely used method but it plays an important role in industrial surveys in developed regions, particularly, when the survey has to be accomplished in a very limited time. Questionnaires are mailed to the respondents with a request to return after completing the same. It is the most extensively used method in various economic and business surveys.

Before applying this method, usually a Pilot Study for testing the questionnaire is conduced which reveals the weaknesses, if any, of the questionnaire. Questionnaire to be used must be prepared very carefully so that it may prove to be effective in collecting the relevant information.

They are provided with schedules containing relevant questions. These enumerators go to respondents with these schedules. Data are collected by filling up the schedules by enumerators on the basis of replies given by respondents. Much depends upon the capability of enumerators so far as this method is concerned.

Some occasional field checks on the work of the enumerators may ensure sincere work. Though he should pay attention to all these factors but much depends upon the ability and experience of the researcher. In this context Dr A. Bowley very aptly remarks that in collection of statistical data commonsense is the chief requisite and experience the chief teacher.

Execution of the project: Execution of the project is a very important step in the research process. If the execution of the project proceeds on correct lines, the data to be collected would be adequate and dependable.

The researcher should see that the project is executed in a systematic manner and in time. If the survey is to be conducted by means of structured questionnaires, data can be readily machine-processed. In such a situation, questions as well as the possible answers may be coded. If the data are to be collected through interviewers, arrangements should be made for proper selection and training of the interviewers.

The training may be given with the help of instruction manuals which explain clearly the job of the interviewers at each step. Occasional field checks should be made to ensure that the interviewers are doing their assigned job sincerely and efficiently.

A careful watch should be kept for unanticipated factors in order to keep the survey as much realistic as possible. This, in other words, means that steps should be taken to ensure that the survey is under statistical control so that the collected information is in accordance with the pre-defined standard of accuracy. If some of the respondents do not cooperate, some suitable methods should be designed to tackle this problem.

One method of dealing with the non-response problem is to make a list of the non-respondents and take a small sub-sample of them, and then with the help of experts vigorous efforts can be made for securing response.

Analysis of data: After the data have been collected, the researcher turns to the task of analysing them. The analysis of data requires a number of closely related operations such as establishment of categories, the application of these categories to raw data through coding, tabulation and then drawing statistical inferences.

The unwieldy data should necessarily be condensed into a few manageable groups and tables for further analysis. Thus, researcher should classify the raw data into some purposeful and usable categories.

Coding operation is usually done at this stage through which the categories of data are transformed into symbols that may be tabulated and counted. Editing is the procedure that improves the quality of the data for coding.

With coding the stage is ready for tabulation. Tabulation is a part of the technical procedure wherein the classified data are put in the form of tables.

The mechanical devices can be made use of at this juncture. A great deal of data, specially in large inquiries, is tabulated by computers. Computers not only save time but also make it possible to study large number of variables affecting a problem simultaneously. Analysis work after tabulation is generally based on the computation of various percentages, coefficients, etc. In the process of analysis, relationships or differences supporting or conflicting with original or new hypotheses should be subjected to tests of significance to determine with what validity data can be said to indicate any conclusion s.

For instance, if there are two samples of weekly wages, each sample being drawn from factories in different parts of the same city, giving two different mean values, then our problem may be whether the two mean values are significantly different or the difference is just a matter of chance.

Through the use of statistical tests we can establish whether such a difference is a real one or is the result of random fluctuations. Similarly, the technique of analysis of variance can help us in analysing whether three or more varieties of seeds grown on certain fields yield significantly different results or not.

In brief, the researcher can analyse the collected data with the help of various statistical measures. Hypothesis-testing: After analysing the data as stated above, the researcher is in a position to test the hypotheses, if any, he had formulated earlier. Do the facts support the hypotheses or they happen to be contrary? This is the usual question which should be answered while testing hypotheses. Various tests, such as Chi square test, t-test, F-test, have been developed by statisticians for the purpose.

The hypotheses may be tested through the use of one or more of such tests, depending upon the nature and object of research inquiry. Hypothesis-testing will result in either accepting the hypothesis or in rejecting it.

If the researcher had no hypotheses to start with, generalisations established on the basis of data may be stated as hypotheses to be tested by subsequent researches in times to come.

Generalisations and interpretation: If a hypothesis is tested and upheld several times, it may be possible for the researcher to arrive at generalisation, i. As a matter of fact, the real value of research lies in its ability to arrive at certain generalisations. If the researcher had no hypothesis to start with, he might seek to explain his findings on the basis of some theory.

It is known as interpretation. The process of interpretation may quite often trigger off new questions which in turn may lead to further researches. Preparation of the report or the thesis: Finally, the researcher has to prepare the report of what has been done by him. Writing of report must be done with great care keeping in view the following: 1. The layout of the report should be as follows: i the preliminary pages; ii the main text, and iii the end matter.

In its preliminary pages the report should carry title and date followed by acknowledgements and foreword. Then there should be a table of contents followed by a list of tables and list of graphs and charts, if any, given in the report.

The main text of the report should have the following parts: a Introduction: It should contain a clear statement of the objective of the research and an explanation of the methodology adopted in accomplishing the research. The scope of the study along with various limitations should as well be stated in this part. If the findings are extensive, they should be summarised. In fact, it is the final summing up. At the end of the report, appendices should be enlisted in respect of all technical data.

Bibliography, i. Index should also be given specially in a published research report. Charts and illustrations in the main report should be used only if they present the information more clearly and forcibly.

Criteria of Good Research Whatever may be the types of research works and studies, one thing that is important is that they all meet on the common ground of scientific method employed by them. One expects scientific research to satisfy the following criteria 1. The purpose of the research should be clearly defined and common concepts be used. The research procedure used should be described in sufficient detail to permit another researcher to repeat the research for further advancement, keeping the continuity of what has already been attained.

The procedural design of the research should be carefully planned to yield results that are as objective as possible. The researcher should report with complete frankness, flaws in procedural design and estimate their effects upon the findings.

The analysis of data should be sufficiently adequate to reveal its significance and the methods of analysis used should be appropriate. The validity and reliability of the data should be checked carefully. Conclusions should be confined to those justified by the data of the research and limited to those for which the data provide an adequate basis. Greater confidence in research is warranted if the researcher is experienced, has a good reputation in research and is a person of integrity.

In other words, we can state the qualities of a good research12 as under: 1. Good research is systematic: It means that research is structured with specified steps to be taken in a specified sequence in accordance with the well defined set of rules.

Systematic characteristic of the research does not rule out creative thinking but it certainly does reject the use of guessing and intuition in arriving at conclusions. Good research is logical: This implies that research is guided by the rules of logical reasoning and the logical process of induction and deduction are of great value in carrying out research. Induction is the process of reasoning from a part to the whole whereas deduction is the process of reasoning from some premise to a conclusion which follows from that very premise.

In fact, logical reasoning makes research more meaningful in the context of decision making. Bellenger and Barnett, A. Research Methodology: An Introduction 21 3.

Good research is empirical: It implies that research is related basically to one or more aspects of a real situation and deals with concrete data that provides a basis for external validity to research results. Good research is replicable: This characteristic allows research results to be verified by replicating the study and thereby building a sound basis for decisions. Problems Encountered by Researchers in India Researchers in India, particularly those engaged in empirical research, are facing several problems.

Some of the important problems are as follows: 1. The lack of a scientific training in the methodology of research is a great impediment for researchers in our country. There is paucity of competent researchers.

Many researchers take a leap in the dark without knowing research methods. Most of the work, which goes in the name of research is not methodologically sound.

Research to many researchers and even to their guides, is mostly a scissor and paste job without any insight shed on the collated materials. The consequence is obvious, viz. Thus, a systematic study of research methodology is an urgent necessity. Before undertaking research projects, researchers should be well equipped with all the methodological aspects.

As such, efforts should be made to provide short- duration intensive courses for meeting this requirement. There is insufficient interaction between the university research departments on one side and business establishments, government departments and research institutions on the other side. Efforts should be made to develop satisfactory liaison among all concerned for better and realistic researches. There is need for developing some mechanisms of a university—industry interaction programme so that academics can get ideas from practitioners on what needs to be researched and practitioners can apply the research done by the academics.

Most of the business units in our country do not have the confidence that the material supplied by them to researchers will not be misused and as such they are often reluctant in supplying the needed information to researchers. The concept of secrecy seems to be sacrosanct to business organisations in the country so much so that it proves an impermeable barrier to researchers. Research studies overlapping one another are undertaken quite often for want of adequate information.

This results in duplication and fritters away resources. This problem can be solved by proper compilation and revision, at regular intervals, of a list of subjects on which and the places where the research is going on. Due attention should be given toward identification of research problems in various disciplines of applied science which are of immediate concern to the industries.

There does not exist a code of conduct for researchers and inter-university and inter- departmental rivalries are also quite common. Hence, there is need for developing a code of conduct for researchers which, if adhered sincerely, can win over this problem. Many researchers in our country also face the difficulty of adequate and timely secretarial assistance, including computerial assistance. This causes unnecessary delays in the completion of research studies.

All possible efforts be made in this direction so that efficient secretarial assistance is made available to researchers and that too well in time.

University Grants Commission must play a dynamic role in solving this difficulty. Library management and functioning is not satisfactory at many places and much of the time and energy of researchers are spent in tracing out the books, journals, reports, etc. Thus, efforts should be made for the regular and speedy supply of all governmental publications to reach our libraries. There is also the difficulty of timely availability of published data from various government and other agencies doing this job in our country.

Who is a Researcher, What Does He Do A researcher is a knowledgeable person who has a good background in science with a good written and communication skills A researcher should be able to carry out a range of professional assignments 1. Define research subject 2. Gather information, techniques, studies from various literatures 3. Carries out experiments 4.

Prepare research reports 6. Takes part in seminars and workshops What is the difference between Scientist and Researcher? Tamimi 7. Chemical Engineering The interest of a researcher in exploring ideas or issues e. Plastic Recycling Dissolving the Plastics Problems detected and needing a solution in practical or theoretical terms e.

Studying the effectiveness of acetone extraction C3H6O in dissolving plastic Questions arising from experience or reading the literature e.

Tamimi 8. Tamimi 9. Additional Classifications Quantitative vs. Tamimi Characteristics of Research The following represents the mains characteristics of a scientific research Purpose: the purpose of research is clearly stated Solution: it is solution oriented and directed towards the solution of a problem Relation: Determines the relation between two or more problems Skills: Research require a careful skill in recording and reporting the data Knowledge: Research requires that researcher have full knowledge of the problem under the study Replication: research is replicable.

The design, procedures and result of scientific research should be replicable so that any person other than the researcher assess the validity of research Page-9 An Najah National University O. Why the color of an apple-slice turns to brown after few hours? This has led to the discovery of electromagnetism which revolutionized our world Note: Good observations lead to scientific discoveries Page An Najah National University O. Step-2 Literature Review Background Research Sources of Literature Review The term sources refer to print, electronic or visual materials necessary for your research.

Step-3 Testable Hypothesis Hypothesis A hypothesis is a special kind of prediction that forecasts predicts how changing one part of an experiment will affect the results. It is NOT a guess. It is an informed and well-thought out prediction that requires background information. You can also think of it as a cause-effect statement.

Scientific Question: How does the amount of daylight affect plant growth? Hypothesis: If the amount of daylight increases, then the growth of a plant increases Scientific Question: How does the color of a surface affect its temperature? Hypothesis: if the color of a surface is black then the temperature absorption is high Page An Najah National University O.

Reject the null. Fail to reject the null. Sample Scientific Research Research Title: Light effects on colored surfaces Scientific Question: How does the color of a surface affect its temperature? Procedure 1 Place the two containers on a level surface and allow the air inside the containers to equalize with air in the room. This should take no more than about 10 minutes. Record the temperature of each thermo-meter.

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